Parasitic wasps propagate by injecting their eggs into a caterpillar that then becomes paralyzed as the eggs inside develop into wasp larvae. The wasp larvae kill the caterpillar host as they feed on it, form cocoons, and finally develop into wasps. In attempting to discover how such wasps detect the presence of the caterpillar hosts that are so critical to the wasps’ propagation, researchers have uncovered an intriguing defense mechanism developed by the plants on which the caterpillars feed.
When chewed on, many plants release volatile compounds from both damaged and undamaged tissues. When these compounds are toxic to the insects that feed on the plants, they can help defend the plants from such attacks. However, the plants on which the wasps’ caterpillar hosts feed have evolved an even more complex defense: the caterpillar-infested plants appear to release volatile chemicals that attract parasitic wasps, which then prey on the caterpillars. Scientists originally suspected that the wasps were attracted by an odor, reminiscent of cut grass, that is released as the caterpillar feeds, but a recent study suggests that a different set of volatile attractants is involved. In this study, when researchers used a razor blade to mimic caterpillar damage on the leaves, only grassy odors were emitted, not the volatile compounds that attracted wasps. However, when oral secretions from the caterpillars were applied to these damaged leaves, the leaves released the wasp attractants several hours later. Further tests revealed that oral secretions placed on the razor-damaged leaves stimulated the release of such attractants, making the plants as attractive to wasps as plants that had suffered actual caterpillar damage. These results suggest that chemicals from the caterpillar must be present for these attractants to be released and that unlike the grassy scent, which emanates only as the caterpillar on the plant, the wasp attractants are produced several hours after the attack and persist for several hours, perhaps days. Researchers have launched additional studies to determine whether the wasps’ capacity to prey on caterpillars can be enhanced to the extent that the wasps could be used as a natural pesticide to "police" plants and protect them from crop-destroying caterpillars.
It can be inferred from the passage that if the leaves of a plant were damaged by wind rather than by caterpillars, the parasitic wasps would
- A . not be significantly more attracted to the damaged plant than to other, undamaged plants
- B . not be attracted to the plant until several hours after the damage occurred
- C . be attracted to the plant if it gave off a grassy odor
- D . be attracted to the plant if other plants in its immediate vicinity had also been damaged by the wind
- E . be attracted to the plant even if the damage to the leaves was very minor
Parasitic wasps propagate by injecting their eggs into a caterpillar that then becomes paralyzed as the eggs inside develop into wasp larvae. The wasp larvae kill the caterpillar host as they feed on it, form cocoons, and finally develop into wasps. In attempting to discover how such wasps detect the presence of the caterpillar hosts that are so critical to the wasps’ propagation, researchers have uncovered an intriguing defense mechanism developed by the plants on which the caterpillars feed.
When chewed on, many plants release volatile compounds from both damaged and undamaged tissues. When these compounds are toxic to the insects that feed on the plants, they can help defend the plants from such attacks. However, the plants on which the wasps’ caterpillar hosts feed have evolved an even more complex defense: the caterpillar-infested plants appear to release volatile chemicals that attract parasitic wasps, which then prey on the caterpillars. Scientists originally suspected that the wasps were attracted by an odor, reminiscent of cut grass, that is released as the caterpillar feeds, but a recent study suggests that a different set of volatile attractants is involved. In this study, when researchers used a razor blade to mimic caterpillar damage on the leaves, only grassy odors were emitted, not the volatile compounds that attracted wasps. However, when oral secretions from the caterpillars were applied to these damaged leaves, the leaves released the wasp attractants several hours later. Further tests revealed that oral secretions placed on the razor-damaged leaves stimulated the release of such attractants, making the plants as attractive to wasps as plants that had suffered actual caterpillar damage. These results suggest that chemicals from the caterpillar must be present for these attractants to be released and that unlike the grassy scent, which emanates only as the caterpillar feeds on the plant, the wasp attractants are produced several hours after the attack and persist for several hours, perhaps days. Researchers have launched additional studies to determine whether the wasps’ capacity to prey on caterpillars can be enhanced to the extent that the wasps could be used as a natural pesticide to "police" plants and protect them from crop-destroying caterpillars.
The author implies that if, in the experiment described in the second paragraph, the parasitic wasps had been drawn to the plants after they had been damaged by a razor blade but without application of oral secretions from the caterpillar, then scientists would likely have concluded which of the following?
Wasps are attracted to the plants by the grassy odor released as the caterpillars feed on the plants’ leaves.
- A . Wasps are attracted to the plants by volatile compounds released by the
caterpillars as they digest the plant leaves that they consume. - B . Wasps are attracted to the plants by volatile compounds released several hours after the caterpillars first begin consuming the plants’ leaves.
- C . Wasps are attracted to the plants by volatile compounds released by the caterpillars rather than by odors created by the damage the caterpillars inflict on the plants’ leaves.
- D . Wasps are more attracted to plants that have been infested by large numbers of caterpillars than to plants infested by relatively few caterpillars.
The ornithologist interpreted the ravens’ behavior as indicating that they were looking for another bird’s food cache of which it did not know its exact location.
- A . of which it did not know its exact location
- B . that they did not know exactly where it was
- C . the exact location of which was unknown to them
- D . and it did not know exactly where it was
- E . which the exact location was unknown to them
Purina her lifetime, when her 1922 book Etiquette was running second only to the Bible in United States sales. Emily Post was ridiculed as a period-piece snob focused on minutiae, even though her book argued against snobbery.
- A . During her lifetime, when her 1922 book Etiquette was running second only to the Bible in United States sales, Emily Post was ridiculed as a period-piece snob focused on minutiae, even
- B . While during her lifetime, Emily Post’s 1922 book Etiquette running second in United States sales only to the Bible was ridiculed as a period-piece snob focused on minutiae,
- C . With Emily Post’s 1922 book Etiquette running second only to the Bible in United States sales, even during her lifetime ridiculed as a period-piece snob focused on minutiae,
- D . Emily Post was ridiculed as a period-piece snob focused on minutiae, when her 1922 book Etiquette was running second in United States sales only to the Bible, even during her lifetime,
- E . Emily Post’s 1922 book Etiquette was running second only to the Bible in United States sales, during her lifetime was ridiculed as a period-piece snob focused on minutiae, even
A series of financial reports in recent months has portrayed an economy that is slowing sharply, thus raising expectations that the Federal Reserve v.ill be comp.. -xi to cut interest rates in order to avert a recession.
- A . that the Federal Reserve will be compelled to cut interest rates in order to avert a recession
- B . that averting a recession will compel the Federal Reserve to cut interest rates
- C . of averting a recession by the Federal Reserve being compelled to cut interest rates
- D . of the Federal Reserve’s being compelled into cutting interest rates in order to avert a recession
- E . of compelling the Federal Reserve into cutting interest rates in order that a recession is averted
Despite his renowned contributions to resolving archaeological questions, he was unable to provide hardly any insight into reconciling the conflicting linguistic and cultural evidence with respect to the expansion of agriculture.
- A . hardly any insight into reconciling the conflicting linguistic and cultural evidence with respect to the expansion of agriculture
- B . hardly any insight about reconciling the conflicting linguistic and cultural evidence on agriculture expanding
- C . much insight into how the conflicting linguistic and cultural evidence about the expansion of agriculture could be reconciled
- D . much insight to reconciling the conflicting linguistic and cultural evidence about how agriculture expanded
- E . hardly any insight for how the conflicting linguistic and cultural evidence about agriculture’s expansion could reconcile
Manufacturers and retailers tend to look askance at gray markets, where products are sold at cut-rate prices outside their authorized distribution channels. Manufacturers fear that gray markets will undercut margins and tarnish brand names. Retailers fear that they will siphon away customers and erode prices.
A new study indicates, however, that gray marketing actually benefits manufacturers and retailers in markets that meet two criteria: first, sharp differences exist in consumers’ price sensitivity; second, large numbers of consumers are price-insensitive. In such markets, the low prices of the gray market will attract the most price-sensitive customers. The authorized channels will then compete only for the remaining customers―those who are insensitive to price but sensitive to service.
When that happens, the structure of competition and the economics of the market shift. The authorized retailers, freed from having to cater to the bargain hunters, can raise their prices and focus on service. If the concentration of price-insensitive shoppers is high enough, the resulting increase in prices will more than offset the loss of sales to the bargain hunters. The margins and profits of the authorized retailers will increase, and manufacturers will, as a result, be able to boost their wholesale prices.
Which of the following, if true, would most undermine the reasoning offered for the claim that gray markets can in certain conditions lead to increased profits among authorized retailers?
- A . More consumers have become price-sensitive over the last ten years and this trend will continue for the foreseeable future.
- B . Gray markets typically remain strong even in markets where authorized retailers have introduced service enhancements.
- C . Price wars among authorized retailers, triggered by the appearance of gray markets when few, if any, consumers are price-insensitive, lead to a cycle of increasing price reductions that severely narrow profit margins.
- D . Authorized retailers who are competing for the business of price-insensitive consumers often become involved in a cycle of expensive service enhancements that significantly narrow profit margins.
- E . Manufacturers who fear that gray marketing will tarnish their brand names sometimes subsidize advertising for authorized retailers, thereby narrowing the manufacturers’ profit margins.
Members of many primate species approach an opponent shortly after conflict and initiate behaviors such as embracing, grooming, or huddling―a phenomenon researchers call postconflict reconciliation. Existing research, however, suffers from several shortcomings. The variability between groups of the same species is rarely addressed; the majority of studies investigate only a small fraction of the pairings that exist in a given group; and almost all reports are restricted to animals in captivity.
In an attempt to address some of these shortcomings, Sommer et al. recently conducted a study of postconflict reconciliation in wild Hanuman langurs, a species of colobine monkey. They observed rates of postconflict reconciliation much lower than would be expected based on previous research, and found that over 80 percent of all pairings exhibited no postconflict affinity whatsoever. The rarity of friendly postconflict reunion in wild langurs draws attention to the possibility that conflicts are modulated through avoidance. The option of temporarily avoiding contact with opponents is not easily available to captive primates, and certainly not to the extent present in the wild. Still, studies of postconflict behavior of primates in captivity remain valuable: above all, they demonstrate the flexibility of nonhuman primates in various environments. It is likely, however, that the reported frequency of reconciliation among primates is artificially inflated by the conditions of captivity.
Which of the following is a research shortcoming mentioned in the passage that is not addressed in the information provided about Sommer’s study?
- A . lnadequate attention to the variability in postconflict behavior between groups of the same species
- B . Inadequate attention to the differences between various forms of postconflict behavior
- C . Inadequate attention to differences between species of colobine monkeys in postconflict behavior
- D . The restriction of most research to primates in captivity
- E . The study of primate groups in which only a small number of pairings took place
The passage suggests most strongly that in the presence of certain economic conditions, gray markets will encourage authorized retailers to
- A . begin selling higher quality products
- B . develop a better relationship with manufacturers
- C . compete more intensely with other authorized retailers
- D . advertise less frequently
- E . abandon trying to attract certain types of customers that they would otherwise try to attract
Government regulations in Nation X require that milk products labeled "organic" come from cows that have access to pasture. Many industrial dairies have begun using the organic label on their products even though their cows spend most of their milk-bearing lives confined to feed lots eating grain. Critics charge that industrial dairy cows spend too little time grazing in pastures for their milk to bear the organic label, but the cows’ owners insist that the animals are in good health and show no signs of discontent.
Which of the following would it be most useful to establish in order to determine whether the industrial dairies’ use of the organic label complies with government regulations?
- A . The average amount of grass eaten by a cow from an industrial dairy that uses the organic label, as compared to the average amount of grass eaten by a cow from a smaller organic dairy farm
- B . By what criteria a cow is considered to be "in good health," according to government regulation
- C . The nutritional value of the milk labeled organic that is produced by cows from industrial dairies
- D . The effects on milk prices of the wider use of the organic label
- E . The meaning of "access to pasture," as stipulated by government regulation
A study examining ninety large cities found that in those with more kilometers of bicycle paths and roadway bicycle lanes per capita, higher percentages of the population commute to work by bicycle. For this reason the study concluded that adding bicycle paths and lanes is an effective way to encourage commuters to bicycle rather than drive.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the reasoning in the study’
- A . The higher the percentage of a city’s population commutes by bicycle, the stronger political pressure there is for the city to add bicycle paths and lanes.
- B . A large percentage of urban bicycle commuters commute via roadway bicycle lanes but use bicycle paths mainly for recreation.
- C . Even in communities with extensive bicycle paths and roadway bicycle lanes, many commuters drive rather than bicycle to work because of the perceived danger of bicycling in traffic.
- D . On average, cities with climates more pleasant for bicycling have fewer kilometers of bicycle lanes and paths per capita than those with harsher climates.
- E . City residents are unlikely to commute along bicycle paths or lanes that do not provide direct, efficient routes between their homes and their workplaces.
Members of many primate species approach an opponent shortly after conflict and initiate behaviors such as embracing, grooming, or huddling―a phenomenon researchers call postconflict reconciliation. Existing research, however, suffers from several shortcomings. The variability between groups of the same species is rarely addressed; the majority of studies investigate only a small fraction of the pairings that exist in a given group; and almost all reports are restricted to animals in captivity.
In an attempt to address some of these shortcomings, Sommer et al. recently conducted a study of postconflict reconciliation in wild Hanuman langurs, a species of colobine monkey. They observed rates of postconflict reconciliation much lower than would be expected based on previous research, and found that over 80 percent of all pairings exhibited no postconflict affinity whatsoever. The rarity of friendly postconflict reunion in wild langurs draws attention to the possibility that conflicts are modulated through avoidance. The option of temporarily avoiding contact with opponents is not easily available to captive primates, and certainly not to the extent present in the wild. Still, studies of postconflict behavior of primates in captivity remain valuable: above all, they demonstrate the flexibility of nonhuman primates in various environments. It is likely, however, that the reported frequency of reconciliation among primates is artificially inflated by the conditions of captivity.
The passage suggests that one reason that the "conditions of captivity" (see bolded text) were significant was that
- A . food and water were readily available to all members of a group
- B . researchers were unable to observe animals from an unobtrusive distance
- C . climatic conditions seldom matched those of the animals’ natural habitat
- D . animals were unable to distance themselves from each other physically
- E . animals lacked opportunities to interact with members of other species
It can be inferred from the passage that if Cope’s hypothesis were correct, which of the following would most likely be true concerning salt-affected areas in Victoria?
- A . The permeable layer of soil would be less thick than the impermeable layer.
- B . Average soil salinity would be less before a rainfall than after a rainfall.
- C . Average soil salinity on certain hillside areas would be less than average soil salinity in adjacent valleys.
- D . During a year of especially low rainfall, the salinity of the soil on the valley floor would decrease.
- E . The land in valley floors affected by salinization would tend to be waterlogged except in dry seasons.
Excavation in City Y found ten ships that all sank at the same time in the city’s harbor, in one sudden event in approximately A.D. 800. One possible explanation for the sinking is a tsunami, caused by a strong earthquake from a fault under the sea about fifteen miles away. However, it is more likely that a powerful storm sank the ships, since, if an earthquake had been responsible, there would also have been major damage to the city’s walls and buildings―but there apparently was no such major damage, otherwise we would have discovered records from that time mentioning major building repairs.
Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
- A . There is evidence that the fault in question had produced tsunamis earlier in City Y’s history.
- B . Some record-keeping practices existed in City Y around A.D. 800.
- C . City Y’s harbor offered relatively good protection for ships from the effects of a storm.
- D . City Y was wealthy enough to have carried out repair work fairly quickly after an earthquake.
- E . If a powerful storm had sunk the ships, there would have been major damage to walls and buildings in the city, but not as much as an earthquake would have caused.
Although a village in a drouqht-stncken area may at first be resistant to using new agricultural techniques, if the village leaders are consulted beforehand and the benefits of the techniques are demonstrated clearly, the agricultural ministry can often effect a real and positive change in agricultural productivity and thus in economic security.
- A . a village in a drought-stricken area may at first be resistant to using new agricultural techniques, if the village leaders are consulted beforehand and the benefits of the techniques are demonstrated clearly,
- B . a village may be resistant to first using new agricultural techniques in a drought-stricken area, if they consult beforehand with village leaders and clearly demonstrates the techniques’ benefits,
- C . at first in a drought-stricken area a village may resist the use of new agricultural techniques, if their leaders are consulted beforehand and their benefits are clearly demonstrated,
- D . at first a village in a drought-stricken area may be resistant to new agricultural techniques, if the leaders are consulted beforehand and one clearly demonstrates their benefits,
- E . a village in a drought-stricken area may first resist using new agricultural techniques if village leaders are consulted beforehand and the benefits of the techniques are clearly demonstrated,
When new regulations were imposed on businesses selling in the same markets as Acme Inc. and the demographics began to change unfavorably for its main product: there was very little that it could have done different in the short term.
- A . product; there was very little that it could have done different in the short term
- B . product, there was very little they could have done different in the short term
- C . product, so there was very little could be done differently by the firm in the short term
- D . product, there was very little possible in the short term for them to do differently
- E . product, there was very little that the firm could have done differently in the short term
The real estate company pleaded guilty in a district court in failing to report all of the profits from the sale of land for the new shopping mall.
- A . in failing to report
- B . for the charge of its failure to report
- C . for its failure in reporting
- D . to its failure in reporting
- E . to the charge of failing to report
For the first time, prospectors have laid claim to rich deposits of gold, silver, and copper in the deep sea, foreshadowing a possible rush to the open oceans for metals and a possible fight with conservationists over exploitation of the sea’s dark recesses.
- A . prospectors have laid claim to rich deposits of gold, silver, and copper in the deep sea, foreshadowing a possible rush to the open oceans for metals and a possible fight
- B . prospectors have laid claim to rich deposits of gold, silver, and copper in the deep sea,
which foreshadows a possible rush to the open oceans for metals and possibly a fight - C . prospectors have laid claim to rich deposits of gold, silver, and copper in the deep sea,
foreshadowing a possible rush to the open oceans for metals and possibly fighting - D . prospectors, having laid claim to rich deposits of gold, silver, and copper in the deep sea, and foreshadowing a possible rush to the open oceans for metals and a possible fight
- E . prospectors having laid claim to rich deposits of gold, silver, and copper in the deep sea foreshadows a possible rush to the open oceans for metals and possibly fighting
Parasitic wasps propagate by injecting their eggs into a caterpillar that then becomes paralyzed as the eggs inside develop into wasp larvae. The wasp larvae kill the caterpillar host as they feed on it, form cocoons, and finally develop into wasps. In attempting to discover how such wasps detect the presence of the caterpillar hosts that are so critical to the wasps’ propagation, researchers have uncovered an intriguing defense mechanism developed by the plants on which the caterpillars feed.
When chewed on, many plants release volatile compounds from both damaged and undamaged tissues. When these compounds are toxic to the insects that feed on the plants, they can help defend the plants from such attacks. However, the plants on which the wasps’ caterpillar hosts feed have evolved an even more complex defense: the caterpillar-infested plants appear to release volatile chemicals that attract parasitic wasps, which then prey on the caterpillars. Scientists originally suspected that the wasps were attracted by an odor, reminiscent of cut grass, that is released as the caterpillar feeds, but a recent study suggests that a different set of volatile attractants is involved. In this study,
when researchers used a razor blade to mimic caterpillar damage on the leaves, only grassy odors were emitted, not the volatile compounds that attracted wasps. However, when oral secretions from the caterpillars were applied to these damaged leaves, the leaves released the wasp attractants several hours later. Further tests revealed that oral secretions placed on the razor-damaged leaves stimulated the release of such attractants, making the plants as attractive to wasps as plants that had suffered actual caterpillar damage. These results suggest that chemicals from the caterpillar must be present for these attractants to be released and that unlike the grassy scent, which emanates only as the caterpillar on the plant, the wasp attractants are produced several hours after the attack and persist for several hours, perhaps days. Researchers have launched additional studies to determine whether the wasps’ capacity to prey on caterpillars can be enhanced to the extent that the wasps could be used as a natural pesticide to "police" plants and protect them from crop-destroying caterpillars.
The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following?
- A . Surveying the different mechanisms that plants adopt to defend themselves from predators
- B . Citing an experiment that explains why a certain kind of organism has difficulty in locating its prey
- C . Providing an example of farmers’ current use of one insect to prey on another that damages their crops
- D . Describing an instance in which one kind of organism exploits the behavior of another kind of organism in order to protect itself from a predator
- E . Describing an instance in which one kind of organism defends itself from predators by mimicking the behavior of another kind of organism
Parasitic wasps propagate by injecting their eggs into a caterpillar that then becomes paralyzed as the eggs inside develop into wasp larvae. The wasp larvae kill the caterpillar host as they feed on it, form cocoons, and finally develop into wasps. In attempting to discover how such wasps detect the presence of the caterpillar hosts that are so critical to the wasps’ propagation, researchers have uncovered an intriguing defense mechanism developed by the plants on which the caterpillars feed.
When chewed on, many plants release volatile compounds from both damaged and undamaged tissues. When these compounds are toxic to the insects that feed on the plants, they can help defend the plants from such attacks. However, the plants on which the wasps’ caterpillar hosts feed have evolved an even more complex defense: the caterpillar-infested plants appear to release volatile chemicals that attract parasitic wasps, which then prey on the caterpillars. Scientists originally suspected that the wasps were attracted by an odor, reminiscent of cut grass, that is released as the caterpillar feeds, but a recent study suggests that a different set of volatile attractants is involved. In this study, when researchers used a razor blade to mimic caterpillar damage on the leaves, only grassy odors were emitted, not the volatile compounds that attracted wasps. However, when oral secretions from the caterpillars were applied to these damaged leaves, the leaves released the wasp attractants several hours later. Further tests revealed that oral secretions placed on the razor-damaged leaves stimulated the release of such attractants, making the plants as attractive to wasps as plants that had suffered actual caterpillar damage. These results suggest that chemicals from the caterpillar must be present for these attractants to be released and that unlike the grassy scent, which emanates only as the caterpillar on the plant, the wasp attractants are produced several hours after the attack and persist for several hours, perhaps days. Researchers have launched additional studies to determine whether the wasps’ capacity to prey on caterpillars can be enhanced to the extent that the wasps could be used as a natural pesticide to "police" plants and protect them from crop-destroying caterpillars.
The first two sentences of the second paragraph serve primarily to
- A . provide an example of a species that relies on the help of another species in defending itself against a particular predator
- B . provide a point of reference against which the author’s description of a related phenomenon can be compared
- C . introduce a phenomenon that casts doubt on experimental results described later in the passage
- D . introduce the phenomenon that the experiment described later in the passage is designed to explain
- E . offer a conventional but probably inaccurate view of how many plants defend themselves from predators
Manufacturers and retailers tend to look askance at gray markets, where products are sold at cut-rate prices outside their authorized distribution channels. Manufacturers fear that gray markets will undercut margins and tarnish brand names. Retailers fear that they will siphon away customers and erode prices.
A new study indicates, however, that gray marketing actually benefits manufacturers and retailers in markets that meet two criteria: first, sharp differences exist in consumers’ price sensitivity; second, large numbers of consumers are price-insensitive. In such markets, the low prices of the gray market will attract the most price-sensitive customers. The authonzed channels will then compete only for the remaining customers―those who are insensitive to price but sensitive to service.
When that happens, the structure of competition and the economics of the market shift. The authorized retailers, freed from having to cater to the bargain hunters, can raise their prices and focus on service. If the concentration of price-insensitive shoppers is high enough, the resulting increase in prices will more than offset the loss of sales to the bargain hunters. The margins and profits of the authorized retailers will increase, and manufacturers will, as a result, be able to boost their wholesale prices.
The primary purpose of the passage is to
- A . explain how, in certain types of markets, gray marketing can improve margins and profits for manufacturers and authorized retailers
- B . identify the effects, both beneficial and detrimental, that gray markets have on manufacturers and authorized retailers
- C . outline a course of action that manufacturers and authorized retailers can take to gain benefits from gray marketing
- D . present the results of a study that indicates that under most conditions gray markets are beneficial to manufacturers and authorized retailers
- E . provide arguments for and against the view that gray markets are beneficial to manufacturers and authorized retailers
I It is said of parasitic forms of life that, although they burden their hosts, they do not kill them, since a parasite cannot survive unless its host does. Mr. Craig’s prize-winning lilies, however, were invaded by dodder, a parasitic plant, and every one of the lilies died soon after. Plainly, therefore, a parasite can be deadly.
The argument above depends on which of the following assumptions?
- A . Mr. Craig did nothing to control the dodder that was invading his lilies.
- B . Mr. Craig’s lilies were not infected with a virus deadly to lilies before being invaded by…………….
- C . Dodder is not usually a parasite of lilies.
- D . Lilies are especially susceptible to being weakened by invading parasites.
- E . Mr. Craig’s lilies were invaded by an unusually vigorous strain of dodder.
Although abundant in many areas of the southern United States, the evening bat has always been uncommon to rare across the northern part of its range―most of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio―their already small populations decreasing even further during the latter part of the twentieth century.
- A . their already small populations decreasing
- B . and already low populations decreased
- C . and their already small populations decreased
- D . their already low numbers decreasing
- E . and its already low numbers decreased
Daniel: Historically, railroads substantially altered the course of the United States economy, enabling the country to enjoy unprecedented growth in the nineteenth century.
Robert: It’s true that growth required cheap inland transportation, which railroads provided. But with government support similar to the massive land grants that subsidized rapid railroad expansion, canals and roads could have had the same effect.
Which of the following is most likely a point that Robert believes is at issue between Daniel and himself?
- A . Whether the nineteenth-century economic growth in the U.S. was caused by railroads
- B . Whether the government should have supported canals and roads in the U.S. in the nineteenth century
- C . Whether railroads’ contribution to economic growth was enabled by government support
- D . Whether economic growth depends on government support for technology that encourages that growth
- E . Whether railroads were necessary for the unprecedented economic growth in the U.S in the nineteenth century
Soil salinization―the process by which soil acquires excess soluble salt, adversely affecting pasture or crop growth―is regarded as Australia’s most serious environmental problem. Cope, whose 1958 investigation is considered the earliest survey of salt-affected areas in Victoria, hypothesized that surplus rainwater mobilized soluble salt stored in the permeable layer of soil, causing it to accumulate above an impermeable layer and then discharge downslope or onto a valley floor. In the late 1970s, however, Jenkin identified saline water underground as the main and immediate (though not ultimate) source of the salt, and hypothesized that the spread of salinity resulted from a rise in that groundwater. He attributed the rise to a decrease in coverage by water-absorbing trees and other vegetation at some ill-defined point in Australia’s post-settlement history.
However, more-recent research suggests there was no rise in post-settlement groundwater levels. Furthermore, soil salinity probably antedated European settlement: early cartographic evidence indicates that some streams were saline when Europeans arrived. Dahlhaus suggests that salt accumulation resulted from marine incursions several million years ago, when parts of Victoria may have been submerged―as well as from transport of salt from the sea by wind and rain. Dahlhaus also notes that various minerals dissolved in groundwater by weathering may have produced salt.
The passage most strongly suggests that the author agrees with which of the following?
- A . There was not significantly less coverage by trees and other vegetation in Victoria after European immigrant settlement than before it.
- B . Average groundwater levels in Victoria probably increased after European immigrant settlement.
- C . Dahlhaus’s examination of early cartographic evidence convinced him that European immigrant settlement was a significant factor contributing to soil salinity in Victoria.
- D . The impact of European immigrant settlement on the environment in Victoria does not explain soil salinity there.
- E . The main source of soil salinity in Victoria has been wind and rain transporting salt from the sea.
Legislator: Relatively few people in this society object to allowing the potential use of gene replacement techniques to treat disease, but most react negatively to allowing the use of such techniques to enhance people’s performance in competitive sports. A clear distinction should therefore be made between medical treatment and performance enhancement when regulations concerning gene replacement are being formulated, because otherwise__________,
Which of the following most logically completes the passage?
- A . these regulations will not accurately reflect the sentiments of most people in this society
- B . gene replacement may be used for purposes yet unimagined
- C . the opinions people have of gene replacement will not have a scientific basis
- D . the generally accepted conception of athletic ability will have already shifted by the time the regulations are implemented
- E . the potential benefits of gene replacement will never be fully realized
Soil salinization―the process by which soil acquires excess soluble salt, adversely affecting pasture or crop growth―is regarded as Australia’s most serious environmental problem. Cope, whose 1958 investigation is considered the earliest survey of salt-affected areas in Victoria, hypothesized that surplus rainwater mobilized soluble salt stored in the permeable layer of soil, causing it to accumulate above an impermeable layer and then discharge downslope or onto a valley floor. In the late 1970s, however, Jenkin identified saline water underground as the main and immediate (though not ultimate) source of the salt, and hypothesized that the spread of salinity resulted from a rise in that groundwater. He attributed the rise to a decrease in coverage by water-absorbing trees and other vegetation at some ill-defined point in Australia’s post-settlement history.
However, more-recent research suggests there was no rise in post-settlement groundwater levels. Furthermore, soil salinity probably antedated European settlement: early cartographic evidence indicates that some streams were saline when Europeans arrived. Dahlhaus suggests that salt accumulation resulted from marine incursions several million years ago, when parts of Victoria may have been submerged―as well as from transport of salt from the sea by wind and rain. Dahlhaus also notes that various minerals dissolved in groundwater by weathering may have produced salt.
The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
- A . the chronology of various failed attempts to understand the dynamics of soil salinization in Victoria
- B . the evidence concerning the approximate date at which soil salinity became a problem in Victoria
- C . the degree to which the farming practices of European immigrants affected soil and water in Victoria
- D . what research suggests concerning how tree coverage in Victoria has affected the absorption of saline water by soil
- E . what best accounts for soil salinization in Victoria based on the results of research
Doctor: People who have grown up on farms and have been frequently exposed to germs from farm animals are much less likely to develop allergies than are people who were raised in more sanitary environments. This suggests that childhood exposure to certain microorganisms improves the function of the immune system.
In order to assess the strength of the doctor’s argument, it would be most helpful to know which of the following?
- A . Whether farm animals exposed to microorganisms can develop allergies as a result
- B . To which species of microorganisms children who grow up on farms are most often exposed
- C . How the lifestyles of children on farms tend to be distinctive in other ways known to affect the function of the immune system
- D . Whether adults who work with farm animals are less likely to develop allergies than adults from similar backgrounds who work in sanitary environments
- E . Whether most of the allergies suffered by adults who did not grow up on farms are caused by allergens found on farms
In Moldova in 1979, Russian was claimed as a native language by a large proportion of Jews (66 percent), ethnic Belarusians (62 percent), and bv a significant proportion of ethnic Ukrainians (30 percent).
- A . percent), ethnic Belarusians (62 percent), and by
- B . percent) and ethnic Belarusians (62 percent) and by
- C . percent), ethnic Belarusians (62 percent) and of
- D . percent), of ethnic Belarusians (62 percent), and of
- E . percent), ethnic Belarusians (62 percent), and
Members of many primate species approach an opponent shortly after conflict and initiate behaviors such as embracing, grooming, or huddling―a phenomenon researchers call postconflict reconciliation. Existing research, however, suffers from several shortcomings.
The variability between groups of the same species is rarely addressed; the majority of studies investigate only a small fraction of the pairings that exist in a given group; and almost all reports are restricted to animals in captivity.
In an attempt to address some of these shortcomings, Sommer et al. recentfy conducted a study of postconflict reconciliation in wild Hanuman langurs, a species of colobine monkey. They observed rates of postconflict reconciliation much lower than would be expected based on previous research, and found that over 80 percent of all pairings exhibited no postconflict affinity whatsoever. The rarity of friendly postconflict reunion in wild langurs draws attention to the possibility that conflicts are modulated through avoidance. The option of temporarily avoiding contact with opponents is not easily available to captive primates, and certainly not to the extent present in the wild. Still, studies of postconflict behavior of primates in captivity remain valuable: above all, they demonstrate the flexibility of nonhuman primates in various environments. It is likely, however, that the reported frequency of reconciliation among primates is artificially inflated by the conditions of captivity.
According to the passage, the majority of the pairings observed in Sommer’s study exhibited postconflict affinity under what conditions?
- A . Only when one member of the pair was markedly stronger than the other
- B . Only during certain times of the year, such as mating season
- C . More often in the form of huddling than in the form of grooming
- D . More often while held in captivity than when interacting in the wild
- E . At no time whatsoever
The decision as to when to bring charges for a criminal offense is the prerogative of the prosecutor, not the prospective defendant. This prerogative should not be put to unfair advantage. Sometimes decades elapse before charges are brought. Though this may be appropriate when striking new evidence implicates someone, bringing charges after many years simply because evidence favoring the prospective defendant has become inaccessible would be grossly unjust.
Which of the following most accurately states the passage’s main point?
- A . There should be safeguards to prevent criminal prosecutors from taking unfair advantage of the prerogative to decide when charges will be brought against a prospective defendant.
- B . Criminal prosecutors have an advantage over prospective defendants in that prosecutors get to decide when, if at all, charges will be brought.
- C . Criminal prosecutors should not take unfair advantage of their prerogative to decide when criminal charges will be brought against a prospective defendant.
- D . In some cases, it is unfair for a prosecutor, many years after an alleged offense has
occurred, to bring charges against a prospective defendant for committing that offense. - E . To bring charges against a prospective defendant after a delay of many years would be
unjust.
Editorial: Since our city’s airport is too small to handle increasing air traffic, analysts propose building a second airport to benefit our city’s economy by allowing more flights and hence attracting more visitors. But this plan would not succeed. If flights to different cities were inconveniently divided between two airports, fewer travelers would make flight connections in our city.
Which of the following would, if true, most seriously weaken the editorial’s argument that the plan would not succeed’
- A . A reduction in travelers flying to a city’s airport merely to make flight connections does not preclude a significant increase in travelers visiting the city itself.
- B . The number of flights to an airport typically increases as the number of travelers making flight connections increases.
- C . Building a second airport would not benefit the city’s economy unless it increased the number of travelers through the city’s airport.
- D . If fewer travelers make flight connections through an airport, the number of flights through that airport typically declines.
- E . Some of the cities that, for their size, attract relatively large numbers of visitors have only one airport.
Psychologist: People tend instinctively to impose patterns on events even when such patterns are not really present. If early humans believed that a rustle in the grass indicated a dangerous predator when it was just the wind, they were more likely to survive than if they believed that it was just the wind when a dangerous predator was there. Thus, in a world of split-second interactions between predators and prey, a person who made an error of the first type was more likely to survive than a person who made an error of the second type. So the tendency to make the first type of error is probably due to__________.
Which of the following would, if true, most logically complete the psychologist’s argument?
- A . evolutionary processes affecting the human species
- B . a decision people make to avoid taking risks
- C . a widespread fear of dangerous animals
- D . a tendency to treat hidden perils as more dangerous than obvious perils
- E . anxiety to avoid the first type of error
The decision-making model is unique in not only making prescriptions about proper leader behavkx while arriving at decisions but also gives prescriptions for the decision maker to follow.
- A . not only making prescriptions about proper leader behavior while arriving at decisions but also gives prescriptions
- B . that it not only makes prescriptions about proper leader behavior in making decisions but also gives prescriptions
- C . that it not only prescribes how leaders should behave in making decisions but prescribes things
- D . that it prescribes not only how leaders should behave when making decisions but also what guidelines
- E . prescribing not only proper leader behavior during decision making, but also guidelines
Manufacturers and retailers tend to look askance at gray markets, where products are sold at cut-rate prices outside their authorized distribution channels. Manufacturers fear that gray markets will undercut margins and tarnish brand names. Retailers fear that they will siphon away customers and erode prices.
A new study indicates, however, that gray marketing actually benefits manufacturers and retailers in markets that meet two criteria: first, sharp differences exist in consumers’ price sensitivity; second, large numbers of consumers are price-insensitive. In such markets, the low prices of the gray market will attract the most price-sensitive customers. The authorized channels will then compete only for the remaining customers―those who are insensitive to price but sensitive to service.
When that happens, the structure of competition and the economics of the market shift. The authorized retailers, freed from having to cater to the bargain hunters, can raise their prices and focus on service. If the concentration of price-insensitive shoppers is high enough, the resulting increase in prices will more than offset the loss of sales to the bargain hunters. The margins and profits of the authorized retailers will increase, and manufacturers will, as a result, be able to boost their wholesale prices.
The Sanpoil, a Native American tribe of the central Plateau west of the Rocky Mountains, sought peace constantly, and not only avoided war and feuds with neighboring peoples and among one another, but also they refused to retaliate if attacked.
- A . and not only avoided war and feuds with neighboring peoples and among one another, but also they refused
- B . and not only avoided war and feuds among neighboring peoples and one another, but also refused
- C . not only to avoid war and feuds with neighboring peoples and one another, but also refusing
- D . not only avoiding war and feuds with neighboring peoples and one another, but also refusing
- E . not only avoiding war and feuds among neighboring peoples and one another, but also refusing
Under United States law, a distinctive package design can be legally protected against copying. Lorex shampoo, a leading brand, is packaged in a triangular-shaped bottle with a gold label. A major pharmacy chain has introduced a similar, less expensive shampoo in similarly shaped bottles with plain black-and-white labels carrying the chain’s name. Though the triangular shape is distinctive, the manufacturer of Lorex has not legally challenged its use for the chain’s shampoo.
Which of the following, if true, provides the strongest reason for the manufacturer of Lorex not to challenge the chain’s use of the triangular package design?
- A . The manufacturer of Lorex depends for sales on the willingness of the chain to stock Lorex and other of the manufacturer’s products.
- B . The black-and-white labeling of the chain’s shampoo indicates to the consumer that irrelevant expense has been spared in order to bring the product to the consumer at lower cost.
- C . The cost of manufacturing the chain’s shampoo is substantially lower than the cost of manufacturing Lorex.
- D . Lawsuits brought for the purpose of protecting distinctive package designs are generally successful.
- E . The manufacturer of Lorex also manufactures other shampoos, and those shampoos are not sold in triangular-shaped bottles.
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.
Store S’s gross profit from a certain product is 40 percent of the store’s revenue from the product.
The store’s gross profit from the product is what percent of the store’s cost for the product?
- A . 25
- B .
- C . 40%
- D .
- E . 150%
What is the value of ac(1 ― b)?
(1) bc = c
(2) ac = 1
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.
If a committee of 3 men and 3 women is to be selected from a group of 7 men and 7 women, how many different committees are possible choices?
- A . 36
- B . 48
- C .
- D .
- E .
Jack’s 1996 salary was x percent greater than his 1995 salary, and his 1997 salary was y percent greater than his 1996 salary. Kate’s 1996 salary was y percent greater thar
her 1995 salary, and her 1997 salary was x percent greater than her 1996 salary. Was Jack’s 1997 salary equal to Kate’s 1997 salary?
(1) Jack’s 1995 salary was equal to Kate’s 1995 salary.
(2) The dollar increase in Jack’s salary from 1995 to 1997 was equal to the dollar increase in Kate’s salary from 1995 to 1997.
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.
- A . greater than 1
- B . greater than or equal to 1
- C . not equal to -1
- D . less than or equal to 1
- E . less than 1
Shaneice drove nonstop from City X to City Y in exactly 5 hours. Shaneice drove the first 200 kilometers from City X to City Y in how many minutes?
(1) Shaneice averaged 80 kilometers per hour during the first 3 hours of driving from City X to City Y.
(2) Shaneice averaged 90 kilometers per hour during the last 2 hours of driving from City X to City Y.
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.
Jim and Beth are in a ticket line along with 43 other people, and Jim is ahead of Beth in the line.
If there are 20 people behind Jim and 30 people ahead of Beth, how many people in the line are between Beth and Jim?
- A . 5
- B . 7
- C . 10
- D . 13
- E . 15
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
- A . Option A
- B . Option B
- C . Option C
- D . Option D
- E . Option E
A quantity of solution that is 3% salt by volume was mixed with a quantity of solution that is 9% salt by volume to produce a quantity of solution that is 4% salt by volume .
How many liters of the 9% solution were used?
(1) The quantity of 3% solution was 5 times the quantity of 9% solution.
(2) The quantity of 4% solution produced was 150 liters.
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.
In the figure above, circular regions and represent sets of integers and every integer greater than 2 is in Mor A, or in both. Is the integer 11 in the shaded region?
(1) Mrepresents the set of integers greater than 2 that are not prime.
(2) Mrepresents the set of odd integers greater than 2.
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.
If the least number in set A is equal to the least number in set B, what is the difference when the median of the numbers in set A is subtracted from the average (arithmetic mean) of the numbers in set B?
(1) Set A consists of 5 consecutive integers and set 5 consists of 6 consecutive integers.
(2) The greatest number in set B is 1 more than the greatest number in set A
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.
- A . Statement (1) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (2) alone is not sufficient.
- B . Statement (2) ALONE is sufficient, but statement (1) alone is not sufficient.
- C . BOTH statements TOGETHER are sufficient, but NEITHER statement ALONE is sufficient.
- D . EACH statement ALONE is sufficient.
- E . Statements (1) and (2) TOGETHER are NOT sufficient.